Forces, Relations and Modes of Production - Karl Marx

The Importance of Production in Human Existence

Human survival is dependent on the production of material goods from natural resources. Material production has always been the basis of human existence and is necessary for meeting basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter.

Marx’s View on Production

Karl Marx views the history of human societies as a narrative of how people relate to each other in their efforts to make a living. He believes that economic production or the production of material life is the starting point from which society is structured. Marx suggests a reciprocity between economic factors and other aspects of historical human development. He holds the factor of economic production as a key concept in explaining societal changes.

Production, Distribution, and Consumption

Marx argues that the processes of production, distribution, and consumption, although distinct, form a totality, each creating and mediating the other. For example, once production is complete, it becomes an object of consumption. Similarly, distribution and production are closely related. He argues that a certain type of production creates a certain type of distribution, exchange, and consumption, forming certain types of relations of production.

Production as a General and Historical Category

Marx uses the term ‘production’ as both a general and historical category. In Capital, he uses ‘production’ as a general category to highlight specific forms of production in capitalist societies. Conversely, when discussing production with specific social and historical characteristics, Marx introduces the concept of the mode of production.

Forces of Production: Definition and Components

The forces of production refer to the degree of control that human beings have over nature. It is a measure of how advanced the productive forces are, indicating the level of control over nature. The more advanced the forces of production, the greater the control over nature, and vice versa. In essence, the forces of production encompass the ways in which material goods are produced. This includes technological know-how, the types of equipment used, and the goods being produced, such as tools, machinery, labor, and levels of technology.

Components of the Forces of Production

According to Marx, the forces of production consist of the means of production and labor power. The means of production refer to the machinery, tools, factories, and other physical infrastructure used in the production process. Labor power, on the other hand, is the capacity of workers to do productive work. It is the ability to add value to commodities through their labor.

The forces of production also include other factors such as the development of machinery, changes in the labor process, the utilization of new sources of energy, and the education of workers. Additionally, science and related skills can be seen as part of the productive forces. Some Marxists have even included geographical or ecological space as a productive force.

Involuntary Changes and Restructuring

Involuntary changes in technology, demography, and ecology can have an impact on the mode of production. These changes can alter the balance of productive relations. However, these changes do not spontaneously restructure or reorganize a mode of production. Instead, any restructuring of power relations, forms of domination, and social organization is mostly the outcome of struggles. The nature and character of these struggles are determined by changes in material life.

Continuous Change in the Material Forces of Production

In every social order, there is a continuous change in the material forces of production. This change can be caused by natural and ecological phenomena, such as the drying up of rivers or deforestation. However, it is more commonly produced by developments in the instruments of production. Human beings have always sought to improve their lives and overcome scarcity. The development of the forces of production reflects the constant struggle of human beings to master nature through their labor.

Primary Role of the Development of Forces of Production

The development of the forces of production is considered primary because it results from an exogenous factor. The motive force lies outside the forces and relations of production and acts upon them. This motive force is the rational and ever-present impulse of human beings to improve their situation and overcome scarcity by developing the productive forces. Human beings, like animals, produce society by acting upon nature through their labor.

Transformation of Nature and Creation of Production Relations

The productive forces transform nature into use values and exchange values. They compel the creation and destruction of successive systems of production relations between human beings. As the productive forces develop and human beings gain knowledge and mastery over nature, successive social relations of production develop and give way. At a certain point of development, the productive forces and the production relations enter into conflict, with the latter being unable to contain the former. This conflict leads to a period of revolution and the emergence of class struggle.

Role of Productive Forces in Human History

Different socio-economic organizations of production arise and fall based on their ability to enable or impede the expansion of society’s productive capacity. The growth of the productive forces explains the general course of human history. It is important to note that the productive forces include not only the means of production but also labor power, which encompasses the skills, knowledge, experience, and other human faculties used in work. The productive forces represent the powers that society has at its disposal for material production.

Relations of Production: An Overview

The concept of relations of production is an essential aspect of Marxian theory. According to Marx, the forces of production are not the only factors in material production. People, through organizing in society, are able to produce jointly. This highlights the social nature of labor. In order to produce, people enter into definite relations with one another. These social relations, known as the relations of production, are the social relations found among the people involved in the process of production. They are determined by the level and character of the development of productive forces.

Interrelation between Forces and Relations of Production

The forces and relations of production are strongly interrelated. The development of one leads to a growing incompatibility or contradiction with the other. These contradictions between the forces and relations of production act as the motor of history. The forces of production determine the superstructure, but there is controversy regarding the primacy of the forces of production over the relations of production. Marx’s own writings exhibit ambiguity on this matter, as he sometimes gives primacy to the relations of production and other times describes forces of production as the prime mover of social change.

Types of Relations of Production

Relations of production correspond to society’s productive level and link the productive forces and human beings in the process of production. There are two broad types of relations of production. The first type refers to the technical relations necessary for the actual production process. These include the interactions and cooperation between workers involved in production. The second type refers to the relations of economic control, which are legally manifested as property ownership. These relations govern access to the forces of production and products.

Relations between People and People

Relations of production are not merely about the ownership of means of production. They are primarily relations between people and people. For example, the relation between the employer and the worker is one of domination, while the relation between co-workers is one of cooperation. These relations can influence the momentum and direction of the development of the productive forces.

Reflection in Economic Ownership

Relations of production are reflected in the economic ownership of productive forces. Under capitalism, the most fundamental relation is the bourgeoisie’s ownership of means of production, while the proletariat owns only its labor power. These relationships of production can also dominate and generate changes in the forces of production. For example, capitalist relations of production often revolutionize the instruments of production and the labor process.

Contradiction between Forces and Relations of Production

At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production. This contradiction between forces and relations of production accounts for history existing as a succession of modes of production. It leads to the decline of one mode and its replacement by another. Forces and relations of production, in any mode of production, underline not just economic progress, but also a movement of society as a whole from one stage to another.

Mode of Production in Marx’s Writing

Marx defines historical periods based on the modes of material production, rather than what is produced. The forces and relations of production are two aspects of the mode of production. The productive forces reflect the degree of control humans have over nature, while the relations of production refer to the social relations involved in production. Historical modes of production are an integral unity between the forces and relations of production.

Definition of Mode of Production

The definition of mode of production is debated among Marxist scholars, but it can be understood as “the way in which the surplus is produced and its use controlled.” Surplus refers to the amount that remains after satisfying use or need. In capitalist mode of production, the surplus takes the form of profit, which is produced by exploiting the working class.

Specific Relations of Production

Each mode of production has specific relations of production that are deliberately ordered to enable the property owning class to extract surplus from the working people. For example, under feudalism, the relations of production between the feudal lord and the serf are necessary for the lord to appropriate surplus from the serf. However, these relations would fail under capitalism, so a new set of production relations develops to enable the capitalist to appropriate surplus value from the workers.

Dynamic Nature of Forces and Relations of Production

Neither the forces of production nor the relations of production are fixed and static. Within a given mode of production, the forces of production may change over time. Technological advancements can lead to greater production. The capitalist nations today are very different from what they were two to three hundred years ago, as capitalism has evolved. This change in the productive forces has resulted in changes in the relations of production. While workers in the twenty-first century may not be as exploited as factory workers in the nineteenth century, Marxists argue that exploitation still exists because modern workers, with modern technology, produce more surplus value than their predecessors and do not proportionately earn more.

Four Modes of Production

The concept of modes of production refers to the different ways in which societies organize their economic activities. Karl Marx identified four main modes of production: Asiatic, Ancient, Feudal, and Capitalist. Each mode of production represents a different stage in the development of human societies and has its own characteristics and contradictions.

Asiatic Mode of Production

The Asiatic mode of production is a specific original mode of production that is distinct from both the ancient slave mode of production and the feudal mode of production. It is characterized by communal ownership of land in primitive communities that are organized based on kinship relations. State power controls the use of essential economic resources and directly appropriates part of the labor and production of the community.

Ancient Mode of Production

The ancient mode of production refers to the forms that precede capitalist production. Slavery is seen as the foundation of this mode of production, with the relation of masters to slaves considered the essence of slavery. In agricultural slavery, the slaves work the master’s land and receive their subsistence in return. The master’s profit is the difference between what the slaves produce and what they consume. However, the slaves are also deprived of their own means of reproduction, and the reproduction of slavery depends on the acquisition of new slaves rather than the productivity of labor.

Feudal Mode of Production

The feudal mode of production was an intermediate stage between the ancient slave society and the capitalist society. Feudalism was characterized by the exploitation of serfs by feudal lords. Serfs were legally unfree and deprived of property rights, but they could use the lord’s property. They were obligated to surrender their labor or the products of their labor beyond what was needed for family subsistence. Feudal rent, in the form of services or taxes, was a crucial component of the feudal mode of production.

Capitalist Mode of Production

Capitalism is a mode of production in which capital, in its various forms, is the dominant means of production. Capitalists, who own capital to the exclusion of the majority of the population, control the production process and make financial decisions. Goods are produced for sale rather than for personal use, and labor power is bought and sold in a market. Money plays a crucial role as a medium of exchange, and individual capitalists compete for control over labor and finance.

Conclusion

The four modes of production identified by Marx represent different stages in the development of human societies. Each mode of production has its own characteristics and contradictions, and they have shaped the course of history. Understanding these modes of production helps us analyze and interpret the economic systems and social relations that have shaped our world.