Durkheim: Sociology as the Scientific Study of Social Facts

Durkheim: Sociology as the Scientific Study of Social Facts

Emile Durkheim, a foundational figure in sociology, revolutionized the field by advocating for the scientific study of social facts. His work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries established sociology as a distinct academic discipline and provided a framework for understanding society that continues to influence sociological thinking today. This article explores Durkheim’s approach to sociology, focusing on his conception of social facts, methods for their observation, and his impact on the discipline.

I. Understanding Social Facts

Durkheim’s concept of social facts is central to his sociological method. He defined social facts as ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that exist outside of individual consciousness but exert a coercive power over individuals.

A. Definition and Characteristics

Social facts, according to Durkheim, are:

• External to individuals: They exist independently of any single person’s thoughts or actions.
• Coercive in nature: They exert pressure on individuals to conform, often through social sanctions.
• Generally distributed within a society: They are collective phenomena shared by members of a social group.

For example, language is a social fact. It exists before we are born, shapes our communication, and persists after we die. We don’t choose the language we’re born into, and it exerts a coercive influence on how we express ourselves.

B. Treating Social Facts as “Things”

Durkheim insisted on treating social facts as concrete, observable entities rather than abstract concepts. This approach was revolutionary at the time and aimed to:

• Overcome misconceptions and vague impressions that often clouded social analysis.
• Promote empirical study over intuition or philosophical speculation.
• Align sociology with other scientific disciplines, giving it the same rigorous methodology.

By treating social facts as “things,” Durkheim meant that sociologists should approach them with the same objectivity that natural scientists approach physical phenomena. This doesn’t mean social facts are material objects, but that they should be studied as external realities that can be measured and analyzed systematically.

II. Rules for Observing Social Facts

Durkheim outlined specific rules for the observation of social facts, aiming to ensure scientific rigor in sociological research.

A. Eradicating Preconceptions

Durkheim emphasized the need for researchers to:

• Free themselves from common, everyday ideas that might bias their observations.
• Adopt an emotionally neutral attitude towards the subject of study.
• Approach investigations with a fresh perspective, as if encountering the phenomenon for the first time.

This rule is similar to the concept of “bracketing” in phenomenology, where researchers set aside their preconceptions to observe phenomena more objectively.

B. Precise Conceptualization

To study social facts effectively, Durkheim stressed the importance of:

• Formulating clear, precise concepts that can be operationalized for research.
• Focusing on observable properties rather than subjective interpretations.
• Developing measurable indicators for abstract concepts.

For instance, in studying social solidarity, Durkheim used the type of law prevalent in a society (repressive or restitutive) as an indicator of the type of solidarity (mechanical or organic) present.

C. Separating Social Facts from Individual Manifestations

Durkheim advocated for:

• Considering social facts independently of individual cases to discern their collective nature.
• Identifying common standards within a society that transcend individual variations.
• Studying collective expressions such as legal rules, moral regulations, and social conventions.

For example, when studying religion, Durkheim focused on collective rituals and beliefs rather than individual spiritual experiences.

III. The Role of Statistics in Studying Social Facts

Durkheim recognized the value of statistical analysis in sociological research, particularly for studying phenomena not directly observable.

A. Isolating Social Currents

He proposed using statistics to:

• Isolate and study social currents that aren’t immediately apparent in individual behavior.
• Analyze patterns and trends in social behavior over time and across different groups.

B. The Case of Suicide Rates

Durkheim’s study of suicide exemplifies this approach:

• He used suicide rates as an indicator of underlying social currents.
• By comparing suicide rates across different societies and time periods, he identified social factors influencing suicide.
• His analysis revealed that suicide rates were influenced by the degree of social integration and regulation in society, leading to his theory of egoistic, altruistic, and anomic suicide.

This study demonstrated how statistical analysis could reveal social facts that weren’t apparent from individual cases alone.

IV. Distinguishing Normal and Pathological Social Facts

Durkheim made an important distinction between normal and pathological social facts, challenging common assumptions about social phenomena.

A. Criteria for Normality

Durkheim established that a social fact is normal when:

• It is typical or average within its societal context.
• It serves a utility for a given societal type, contributing to its functioning or adaptation.

This definition of normality is statistical and functional, rather than moral or ideal.

B. The Normality of Crime

Controversially, Durkheim argued that crime is a normal social fact because:

• It is present in all societies, though its forms may vary.
• It allows for societal change by challenging existing norms.
• It contributes to the evolution of morality and law by prompting social reactions.

Durkheim used the example of Socrates, whose “crime” of independent thinking in Athens ultimately contributed to the development of freedom of thought.

C. Determining Abnormality

A social fact becomes pathological when:

• Its rate significantly exceeds what is typical for a given social type.
• It no longer serves a useful function in society or becomes detrimental.

For instance, while some level of crime is normal, an exceptionally high crime rate would be considered pathological.

V. Classification of Social Types

Durkheim believed that to fully understand social facts, sociologists needed to classify societies into types.

A. The Importance of Classification

He emphasized classification as crucial for:

• Facilitating systematic comparison between societies.
• Determining the normality or abnormality of social facts within specific contexts.
• Identifying specific problems and explanations unique to each societal type.

B. Methods of Classification

Durkheim proposed:

• Comprehensive study of individual societies to understand their structure and functioning.
• Comparison to identify similarities and differences between societies.
• Classification based on degree of organization, from simple “segmental” societies to complex “organized” societies.

C. The Role of Observation

Durkheim argued that:

• Limited, well-conducted observations can yield significant insights about social types.
• Representative samples can provide valid information about larger social categories.

This approach allowed for generalization without requiring exhaustive study of every society.

VI. Explaining Social Facts: Causal and Functional Approaches

Durkheim proposed two complementary approaches to explaining social facts: causal and functional.

A. The Causal Approach

This approach focuses on:

• Identifying the historical and social conditions that give rise to social phenomena.
• Separating causes from functions to avoid teleological explanations.
• Understanding the origins and development of social facts over time.

For example, in studying the division of labor, Durkheim examined how increasing population density and competition led to greater specialization.

B. The Functional Approach

This method aims to:

• Establish correspondence between social facts and societal needs.
• Determine how social facts contribute to social cohesion and continuity.
• Analyze the role of social facts within the broader social system.

Durkheim’s analysis of religion exemplifies this approach, as he argued that religious rituals serve to reinforce social bonds and collective consciousness.

C. The Social Character of Explanation

Durkheim emphasized that explanations should:

• Align with the collective nature of society, avoiding reductionism to individual psychology.
• Seek causes and functions in relation to other social facts, not in individual motives.
• Recognize the emergent properties of social life that can’t be reduced to individual components.

This insistence on social explanations for social phenomena was a key aspect of Durkheim’s sociological method.