Explanation:

Assertion (A) is true: Evaporation of sweat removes latent heat from the skin. The phase change from liquid to vapor requires energy (latent heat of vaporization), which is taken from the body, thereby cooling it and dissipating body heat.

Reason (R) is also true: High humidity reduces the rate of evaporation because the air is already moist, diminishing the vapor pressure gradient. With less evaporation, the body cools less effectively, leading to greater discomfort on hot, humid days.

However, (R) does not correctly explain (A). (R) describes a related consequence (why discomfort increases in humidity) rather than explaining the mechanism of how evaporation dissipates heat. A proper explanation of (A) would mention latent heat removal, not humidity effects.

Explanation:

– Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) came first: piloted in 1982 (Paravur, Kerala), later given statutory backing and rolled out widely (nationwide by 2004).
– Voter Photo Identity Card (EPIC) was launched by the Election Commission in 1993 under T. N. Seshan.
– Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) was introduced/piloted on 4 September 2013 (Noksen bypoll, Nagaland) and later mandated for wider rollout (SC judgment in Oct 2013), reaching nationwide usage by 2019.
– NOTA was introduced pursuant to the Supreme Court judgment (PUCL v. Union of India) on 27 September 2013 and first used in assembly elections later in 2013.

Therefore, the correct chronological order is: 2 (EVM), 1 (Photo ID), 3 (VVPAT), 4 (NOTA).

Explanation:

Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana (PMMY) is administered by the Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance. MUDRA Ltd. (set up under SIDBI) provides refinance to banks/NBFCs/MFIs that lend under PMMY to non-corporate, non-farm micro enterprises.

Explanation:

Appiko is Karnataka’s version of the Chipko movement. It began in 1983 in the Uttara Kannada (Sirsi) region under Panduranga Hegde; ‘Appiko’ in Kannada means ‘to embrace,’ referring to hugging trees to prevent felling. Therefore, it is associated only with Karnataka (state 4).

Explanation:

Mapping:
– A. Mahendravarman I → Pallava (2): Early 7th-century Pallava ruler, known for rock-cut temples (e.g., Mandagapattu), father of Narasimhavarman I.
– B. Kadungon → Pandya (4): Pandya king credited with ending the Kalabhra interregnum and reviving Pandya power.
– C. Amoghavarsha I → Rashtrakuta (1): Eminent Rashtrakuta ruler of Manyakheta, patron of Jainism, author of Kavirajamarga.
– D. Rajaraja I → Chola (3): Great Chola emperor, builder of Brihadisvara Temple, major imperial expansions.

Thus, A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 → Option 2.

Explanation:

Both statements are true, and the Reason explains the Assertion. A: India’s success is pivotal for the global achievement of the SDGs because many SDG outcomes (poverty reduction, hunger, health, education, sanitation, energy access, etc.) are measured in global aggregates or are heavily influenced by large-population countries. R: India accounts for nearly one-sixth (about 17–18%) of the world’s population. This demographic weight means India’s performance substantially shifts global totals and averages; without major gains in India, the world cannot meet many SDG targets. Therefore, R provides the rationale for A.

Explanation:

Statement 1 is correct: Under Articles 64 and 89 of the Constitution, the Vice-President is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

Statement 2 is incorrect: The Vice-President, as Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, is not a member of the House. He presides over its proceedings and has only a casting vote in case of a tie. In contrast, the Deputy Chairman is elected from among Rajya Sabha members and is a member.

Therefore, only Statement 1 is correct.

Explanation:

Assertion (A) is true: Food security is needed even in years of surplus production because food security is not only about availability; it also includes access, utilization, and stability. Surplus addresses availability but not whether people can physically or economically access food.
Reason (R) is true and correctly explains (A): Starvation can occur due to unequal distribution, poor purchasing power, market failures, transport/logistics gaps, and exclusion from safety nets—hence the need for food security measures (PDS, buffer stocks, targeted distribution) even in surplus years. This aligns with Amartya Sen’s entitlement approach, which shows famines and hunger can occur without a decline in aggregate food availability.

Explanation:

Decreasing frequency means from highest to lowest. In the electromagnetic spectrum: Gamma rays > X-rays > Ultraviolet > Radio waves (since frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength and gamma rays have the shortest wavelengths while radio waves have the longest). Hence the correct order among the given is 1 (Gamma), 4 (X-ray), 2 (UV), 3 (Radio).

Explanation:

• Periyar (1): A west-flowing river of Kerala; it debouches into the Arabian Sea via the Kochi backwaters/Cochin estuary (Vembanad). Hence, it falls into the Arabian Sea.
• Pennar (2): East-flowing (Penna/North Pennar); drains into the Bay of Bengal near Nellore. Not Arabian Sea.
• Palar (3): East-flowing; meets the Bay of Bengal near the Kalpakkam–Mahabalipuram region in Tamil Nadu. Not Arabian Sea.
Therefore, only 1 falls into the Arabian Sea.