Model Answer:

Digital ethnography

Digital ethnography, an extension of traditional ethnographic methods, involves studying online communities, social media platforms, and digital interactions. This approach offers several advantages:

1. Access to wider populations: Researchers can engage with diverse groups across geographical boundaries.
2. Real-time data collection: Social media and online forums provide immediate insights into ongoing social phenomena.
3. Reduced observer effect: The virtual nature of interactions may lead to more authentic behavior from subjects.

However, digital ethnography also presents challenges:
• Ethical concerns regarding privacy and consent in online spaces
• Potential bias in sampling due to digital divides
• Difficulty in verifying online identities and information

The use of visual culture in sociological research has gained prominence, encompassing analysis of images, videos, and other visual media. Key aspects include:

1. Rich data sources: Visual materials offer nuanced insights into cultural norms, social behaviors, and power dynamics.
2. Multimodal analysis: Combining visual and textual data provides a more comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.
3. Participatory methods: Photo-elicitation and participatory video techniques engage research subjects more actively.

Examples of visual culture in sociological research include:
• Analysis of Instagram posts to study body image perceptions
• Examination of protest imagery to understand social movements
• Use of participatory photography in community-based research

These approaches enhance traditional qualitative methods, offering new ways to capture and analyze social realities. However, researchers must remain critical of potential biases in visual representation and interpretation.

In conclusion, digital ethnography and visual culture methods offer valuable tools for sociological research, providing rich data and new perspectives. However, researchers must navigate ethical and methodological challenges to ensure rigorous and responsible scholarship.

Model Answer:

Social Mobility

Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions within a society’s stratification system. This concept is crucial for understanding societal dynamics and opportunity distribution.

The classification of ‘closed’ and ‘open’ models of social stratification offers insights into mobility patterns:

• Closed model:
– Characterized by rigid boundaries between social classes
– Limited opportunities for upward mobility
– Typically based on ascribed statuses (e.g., birth, race)
– Examples include caste systems in traditional India or feudal societies in medieval Europe
– Max Weber argued that closed systems lead to social reproduction and status groups
– Emile Durkheim noted that such systems often rely on mechanical solidarity

• Open model:
– Features more fluid boundaries between social classes
– Greater opportunities for upward (and downward) mobility
– Often associated with achieved statuses and meritocratic ideals
– Examples include modern industrialized societies with emphasis on education and skills
– Ralph Dahrendorf argued that open systems lead to conflict and change

Critiques of this classification:
– Most societies fall somewhere between these extremes, exhibiting elements of both models
– Even ‘open’ systems may have hidden barriers to mobility (e.g., institutional racism, glass ceilings)
– Factors like social capital (Coleman) and cultural capital (Bourdieu) influence mobility beyond formal structures
– Intersectionality theory highlights how multiple factors (race, gender, class) interact to affect mobility

In conclusion, while the closed/open dichotomy provides a useful framework, a more nuanced approach is needed to fully grasp the complexities of social mobility across different societal contexts.

Model Answer:

The notion of ‘objectivity’ in sociological research is both valued and contested. While some argue it’s over-hyped, others maintain its crucial importance. A balanced view recognizes both perspectives:

Arguments for objectivity’s importance:

1. Scientific rigor: Objectivity maintains standards of scientific inquiry and methodological consistency.
2. Credibility: Objective research is more likely to be taken seriously by policymakers and the public.
3. Comparability: Standardized measures allow for comparison across different studies and contexts.
4. Bias reduction: Striving for objectivity can help minimize personal biases in research.

Arguments that objectivity is over-hyped:

1. Unattainability: Complete objectivity may be impossible due to inherent biases and social positioning.
2. Oversimplification: Strict adherence might oversimplify complex social phenomena.
3. Value-laden nature: As Max Weber noted, social research inevitably involves value judgments.
4. Power dynamics: Claims of objectivity can mask underlying power structures in research processes.

Given this tension, many sociologists advocate for a nuanced approach. Emile Durkheim’s work on suicide demonstrated the challenges of applying purely positivist methods to social phenomena. This perspective informs the use of non-positivist methods, which have their own merits and demerits:

Merits of non-positivist methods:

1. Depth of understanding: Qualitative approaches allow for rich, contextualized insights.
2. Flexibility: These methods can adapt to emerging themes during research.
3. Reflexivity: Researchers are encouraged to examine their own biases, as emphasized in Pierre Bourdieu’s “reflexive sociology.”
4. Empowerment: Participatory methods can give voice to marginalized groups.

Demerits of non-positivist methods:

1. Subjectivity concerns: Heavy reliance on interpretation may lead to biased results.
2. Limited generalizability: Findings may not apply broadly to larger populations.
3. Replication difficulties: Unique nature of studies can make reproduction challenging.
4. Resource intensity: In-depth qualitative research often requires significant time and effort.

Conclusion: Objectivity remains valuable, but a balanced approach recognizes its limitations. As C. Wright Mills argued, connecting personal troubles with public issues often requires going beyond strict objectivity.

Model Answer:

Sociology’s origins are often attributed to European Enlightenment and Renaissance, but this view requires critical examination.

Contributions of Enlightenment and Renaissance to sociology:

1. Rationalism and empiricism: Enlightenment thinkers like Locke emphasized reason and observation, laying groundwork for scientific study of society.

2. Social progress: Ideas of human perfectibility influenced early sociologists like Comte and his law of three stages, and Spencer’s social evolutionism.

3. Secularization: Shift from religious to rational explanations of social phenomena was crucial for sociology’s development.

4. Humanism: Renaissance focus on human-centered studies paved way for sociological inquiry into culture and social institutions.

5. Scientific method: Francis Bacon’s empiricism provided methodological framework for studying society systematically.

However, several factors challenge the notion that sociology is solely a product of these European movements:

1. Non-Western influences: Ibn Khaldun’s 14th-century work on social cohesion predates European sociology, offering early insights into social dynamics.

2. Industrial Revolution: 19th-century social upheavals were immediate catalysts for sociology’s formal establishment, prompting analysis of rapid social change.

3. Critique of modernity: Sociologists like Weber critically examined rationalization, challenging Enlightenment’s optimism and highlighting modernity’s contradictions.

4. Colonial encounters: Interactions with non-European societies shaped early sociological thought, often problematically, leading to debates on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism.

5. Marx’s historical materialism: While influenced by Enlightenment thought, Marx’s critique of capitalism and class analysis offered a radical departure, shaping conflict theory in sociology.

While Enlightenment and Renaissance significantly influenced sociology, the discipline emerged from a complex interplay of intellectual currents, social changes, and global interactions. Its development was neither linear nor exclusively European, incorporating diverse perspectives and responding to varied social realities.

Model Answer:

Democracy thrives on active citizenship, nurtured by a vibrant civil society. This relationship is crucial for democratic foundations.

Civil society, encompassing voluntary groups, NGOs, and social movements, bridges the gap between state and citizens. It bolsters democratic citizenship through:

1. Promoting civic engagement: Civil society provides avenues for public participation, developing civic responsibility. Tocqueville’s observation of such associations as “schools of democracy” remains relevant today.

2. Enhancing rights awareness: It educates citizens about their rights and duties, enabling effective democratic participation.

3. Fostering pluralism: By voicing diverse interests, civil society ensures inclusive democracy, embodying Dahl’s concept of polyarchy in practice.

4. Ensuring accountability: Acting as a watchdog, civil society promotes governmental transparency. This role aligns with Marshall’s view of citizenship rights, particularly in their civil and political dimensions.

5. Building social capital: It cultivates trust and social networks vital for democracy. This process echoes Durkheim’s insights on social solidarity in modern societies.

However, civil society faces challenges like fragmentation and elite domination, which can hinder democratic processes. Despite these issues, a dynamic civil society remains key to fostering engaged citizenship and reinforcing democracy.

Model Answer:

Talcott Parsons’ Basic and Irreducible Functions of the Family

Talcott Parsons,proposed that the family has two “basic and irreducible” functions in modern society: the primary socialization of children and the stabilization of adult personalities. These functions are considered essential for the maintenance and continuity of social order.

1. Primary Socialization of Children:
• The family is the first and most crucial agent of socialization
• Parents transmit cultural values, norms, and social skills to children
• This process helps children develop their personalities and prepares them for future social roles
• Example: Teaching basic language skills, manners, and moral values

2. Stabilization of Adult Personalities:
• The family provides emotional support and a stable environment for adults
• It serves as a buffer against external stresses and pressures
• Offers a space for relaxation, intimacy, and emotional release
• Example: Marital relationships providing mutual support and understanding

Parsons argued that these functions are irreducible because they cannot be effectively performed by other social institutions. He believed that the nuclear family, consisting of parents and children, was best suited to fulfill these functions in modern industrial societies.

While Parsons’ theory has been influential, it has also faced criticism for its functionalist approach and limited view of family diversity. Nonetheless, it remains a significant contribution to understanding the role of family in society.

Model Answer:

Marriage from Ritual to Commercial

Marriage as an institution has undergone a radical transformation from ‘ritual’ to ‘commercial’ in its outlook. The factors behind this change include:

1. Modernization and Economic Liberalization: Economic reforms have led to increased consumerism, influencing wedding practices. M.N. Srinivas explain the adoption of lavish wedding customs as symbols of social status.

2. Media Influence: The portrayal of grand weddings in media, especially Bollywood, has created new aspirations and expectations among the masses.

3. Urbanization: Migration to cities has weakened traditional community ties, leading to more individualistic and often more extravagant approaches to marriage celebrations.

4. Changing Family Structures: The shift from joint to nuclear families has altered decision-making processes in marriage arrangements, often resulting in increased wedding expenditures.

5. Rise of the Wedding Industry: A growing industry of wedding planners, designers, and specialized services has commercialized various aspects of wedding rituals.

6. Changing Gender Dynamics: With increasing women’s education and workforce participation, there’s often more financial capacity and decision-making power in wedding planning, sometimes leading to more elaborate celebrations.

These factors have collectively transformed marriage from a primarily ritual-based institution to one increasingly influenced by commercial interests and changing social dynamics.

Model Answer:

Caste as a status group

The caste system in India has undergone significant transformations, evolving from a rigid social hierarchy to a more complex and dynamic structure in contemporary society. Traditionally, as Max Weber described, caste was a closed system of stratification based on ritual purity and occupation. However, modernization, urbanization, and legal reforms have altered its manifestation as a status group.

• Mobility: While historically, caste status was ascribed at birth, there is now increased social and economic mobility. M.N. Srinivas’s concept of “Sanskritization” explains how lower castes adopt practices of higher castes to improve their status.

• Political dimension: Caste has become a significant factor in democratic politics, with caste-based parties and vote banks emerging. This has led to what Rajni Kothari termed “politicization of caste.”

• Economic changes: Economic liberalization has created new opportunities, somewhat weakening the link between caste and occupation. However, as Andre Beteille notes, caste networks still play a role in business and employment.

• Identity assertion: Lower castes have mobilized to demand rights and representation, exemplified by movements like the Dalit Panthers.

Despite these changes, caste continues to influence social interactions, marriages, and discrimination in subtle ways, demonstrating its persistence as a status group in modern India.