Weber and Durkheim on Religion

Durkheim’s Perspective: The Elementary Forms of Religious Life

Emile Durkheim‘s groundbreaking work, “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” (1912), delves into the core of religious practices and beliefs. Durkheim was intrigued by the “elementary forms” of religion, those found in societies with basic social organizations, such as aboriginal or primitive tribal communities. His rationale was that understanding these simple forms would shed light on the complexities of organized religions.

Defining Religion – Beliefs and Rites

Durkheim’s definition of religion is comprehensive and goes beyond the conventional view of religion as dealing solely with the supernatural. He argued that religion encompasses both the ordinary and extraordinary aspects of life. For Durkheim, beliefs and rites are the two fundamental components of religion. Beliefs involve collective representations, while rites are determined modes of action influenced by these beliefs.

Religious beliefs often classify all things into “sacred” and “profane” categories, creating a distinction that must be regulated through various rituals. The sacred is revered, separated from the profane, and protected by social rules, while the profane represents the mundane aspects of life. Rites mediate between these two worlds, preserving the sacred and its identity.

Totemism and Social Organization

Durkheim’s study of totemism among the aborigines of Central Australia exemplifies his approach. Totemism is intimately connected with clan-based social organizations. Members of a clan believe they share a common ancestor, often represented by an animal, plant, or inanimate object, which is the totemic object. This totemic object serves as an emblem, often engraved on various items and clan members’ bodies, imbuing them with sacredness. Taboos and rules are associated with these totemic objects, reinforcing the separation of the sacred and the profane.

However, Durkheim argued that the actual worship was not directed at the totemic object itself but at an impersonal force that permeates the world, known by various names such as “mana” or “orenda.” This force represents the totemic principle, which, in turn, symbolizes the clan itself. Society, for Durkheim, is nothing but a glorified form of god, embodying the physical and moral superiority of the collective over individuals.

Religion and Social Solidarity

In Durkheim’s view, society is venerated through religious practices, producing a sense of unity, solidarity, and collective enthusiasm among its members. Rituals and ceremonies generate what he termed “collective effervescence,” strengthening social bonds and promoting social cohesion. This unification of individuals through the worship of society fosters a feeling of oneness and shared identity, enhancing their participation in the collective life of the community.

Weber’s Perspective: Religion and Science

Max Weber‘s approach to the sociology of religion examines the relationship between religion and science. He argued that religious thought had laid the foundation for scientific thought and that both served to classify, relate, and explain natural, human, and societal phenomena. Scientific thought, according to Weber, represents a more advanced form of religious thought.

The Influence of Religious Thought on Science

Weber noted that many terms used in modern science, such as “force” and “power,” had religious origins. He contended that religious thought and scientific thought coexist and contribute to the collective representations of society. Both seek to uncover universal principles, aligning their goals with the unification of individuals with society.

Weber’s perspective emphasizes that individuals need society to achieve their full humanity, and both religion and science facilitate this integration. As a result, there is no inherent conflict between religious and scientific thought. In fact, social sciences, including the sociology of religion, are themselves scientific studies aimed at understanding and explaining religious phenomena within society.

Mauss’s Contributions: The Legacy of Durkheim and Collaborative Work

Marcel Mauss, the nephew of Emile Durkheim, made significant contributions to the sociology of religion. Mauss collaborated closely with his uncle and several other scholars, including Hubert, Beuchat, and Fauconner. Their work delved into topics like magic, sacrifice, prayer, and the concept of the self, contributing to our understanding of religious practices and beliefs.

Sacrifice as Communication with the Sacred

One of Mauss’s important collaborative works with Hubert was “Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function” (1899). This work analyzed the religious practice of sacrifice as a means of communication between the sacred and profane worlds. Sacrifice involves the destruction of the offered item during the ceremony, signifying the connection between the two realms.

The Gift and Exchange Systems

Mauss’s most influential work, “The Gift” (1925), focused on exchange systems and forms of contracts in archaic societies. He proposed that exchange, encompassing giving, receiving, and repaying, is a fundamental social practice common to all societies. The act of gift-giving serves to strengthen various social bonds, including cooperative, competitive, and antagonistic relationships.

Mauss’s work underlines the importance of understanding how different forms of exchange contribute to the social structure and dynamics of societies. His legacy remains influential, particularly among French and British anthropologists and sociologists.

Max Weber’s Contribution to the Study of Religion

Max Weber, a prominent figure in sociology, made significant contributions to the study of religion. His approach was rooted in understanding human beings as actors who ascribe meaning to the world around them. Weber’s work on religion primarily focused on the ethos and ethics of various world religions and their interactions with other social systems such as politics and the economy. This article delves into Weber’s historical and comparative analysis of religion, emphasizing his studies of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism in India, Confucianism in China, and ancient Judaism.

The Religion of India

In his 1916 work, “The Religion of India,” Max Weber explores the complex relationship between religion, caste, and economic development in India. Hinduism, the dominant religion in India, is intimately connected to the caste system. The caste system, a result of occupational specialization that became hereditary over centuries, was dominated by the Brahmin caste. They had access to the scriptures and were hereditary carriers of traditional ideas. Lower castes, particularly the Shudra, faced numerous socio-cultural disadvantages and were considered ritually impure, denying them access to the scriptures. This prevented them from aspiring to moksha, the Hindu ideal of salvation.

Weber emphasizes the centrality of the doctrine of ‘karma‘ in Hinduism. A person’s position in their current life is determined by their past ‘karma‘ – the consequences of their deeds in past lives. Each caste has a specific ‘dharma,’ or duty, to follow. Brahmins are tasked with studying scriptures, Kshatriyas with defending their land, Vaishyas with engaging in commerce, and Shudras with serving other castes. As per the doctrine, individuals are born into a caste due to past ‘karma‘ and must dutifully fulfill their ‘dharma‘ to aspire to a better birth in the next life, ultimately seeking ‘moksha‘ – liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

While material prosperity was desirable, it was considered temporary and lacking permanent value. Spiritual prosperity, on the other hand, could free an individual from the cycles of birth, death, and rebirth. Pursuing spiritual goals was seen as a means to achieve ‘moksha.’ Weber argues that this otherworldly ethic in Hinduism worked against the rise of capitalism. Despite favorable material conditions in medieval Indian cities, the Hindu religion discouraged a focus on material life, reinforcing traditional values and social order.

Buddhism and Jainism, Weber notes, emerged as alternatives to the rigidity of orthodox Hinduism. They were characterized as pacifist and contemplative religions. Followers were often monks or individuals who rejected the worldly pursuits. Laypersons could gain religious merit by offering alms to monks but couldn’t attain salvation or ‘nirvana‘ unless they abandoned their occupations and became monks themselves. The caste system, combined with religious beliefs, created a system that prevented the development of capitalism in India, despite the fertile ground it offered.

The Religion of China

In his 1916 work, “The Religion of China,” Max Weber turns his attention to Confucianism, the traditional Chinese religion. Contrary to Hinduism’s focus on ‘otherworldly‘ concerns, Weber identifies Confucianism as marked by ‘this worldly asceticism.’ Like Protestantism, Confucianism emphasizes harmony and order in the world.

Maintaining the order of the world and the cosmos, Weber argues, was achieved through the proper performance of ceremonies that upheld the world’s order. Propriety in manners and behavior was greatly stressed. The ruling classes, known as the Chinese ‘mandarins,’ played a pivotal role in upholding manners and morals. Weber asserts that actively changing the world, a fundamental aspect of capitalism, was discouraged in Confucianism due to its emphasis on maintaining social harmony.

Ancient Judaism

Between 1917 and 1919, Max Weber examined the significance of ancient Judaism, a religion that laid the groundwork for the emergence of modern world-transforming religions such as Islam and Christianity. Judaism propagated the idea of creating a ‘heaven on earth,’ encouraging its followers to actively transform and master the world. This concept of mastery over the environment is a key feature of modern Western civilization.

The prophets of Judaism emerged as ethical leaders who sought to unite their followers through their teachings. They preached to the discontented and oppressed peasant classes of Palestine, warning them that the anger of God would destroy the land due to the sinful lifestyles and degeneracy of the ruling classes in the cities. The prophets urged their followers to overthrow these oppressive groups and establish a society that followed the ways of God. This emphasis on actively transforming the world and mastering it, as seen in Judaism, was a key feature that set the stage for the emergence of capitalism in the Western world.

Weber’s work on Christianity and Islam, which could not be completed due to his death in 1920, aimed to further explore the role of these religions in the development of capitalism. His studies underscore the significance of religious ideas and their profound influence on human activity.

Weber’s Central Concern: The Relationship between Religion and Human Activity

Weber’s study of religion reveals a central concern – the relationship between religious ideas and human activity. Weber sought to interpret human action in terms of its meaningfulness to the actors themselves. His analysis provides insights into why individuals, such as the untouchables in ancient India, might not rebel against oppressive systems like the caste system. Weber’s explanation highlights the role of religious belief systems in shaping human behavior and preventing individuals from attempting to transform the world.

Weber’s work underscores the critical role of prophets in various religious traditions and how religious beliefs are connected to specific strata of society. Confucianism is primarily associated with the ruling class, emphasizing harmony and restraint, while Hinduism is linked to the Brahmin orthodoxy and the perpetuation of the caste system. In contrast, ancient Judaism was closely tied to a discontented peasantry striving to overcome oppression and actively transform the world.

Religion in Sociological Perspectives: A Comparative Analysis of Durkheim and Weber

Sociology offers various lenses through which we can examine and understand the intricate interplay between religion and society. Two prominent figures in the field, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber, each provide distinct methodologies and perspectives for analyzing religion. In this article, we will delve into the comparative analysis of Durkheim and Weber’s views on religion, exploring their units of analysis, the roles they assign to religion, their interpretation of gods, spirits, and prophets, and their perspectives on the relationship between religion and science. While their insights are shaped by the societies they studied, we can uncover essential distinctions and common threads in their sociological approaches to religion.

Units of Analysis: Durkheim’s Tribal Embrace vs. Weber’s World Religions

Durkheim’s approach to the study of religion is firmly rooted in what he considers the most elementary form of religious expression – tribal society. In this context, collective life pervades, and ideas are shared by all individuals within the community. Durkheim emphasizes the role of religion in tribal society as a collective phenomenon that reinforces social bonds. This emphasis is particularly apparent in societies without written historical records, where religion and clan organization often overlap. In such settings, religion serves as a glue that binds individuals to the collective, strengthening social cohesion.

In contrast, Max Weber focuses on the world’s major religions, exploring their historical roots and their capacity to guide and shape economic activity. These world religions are seen as responses to the social circumstances of their times. For example, Buddhism and Jainism in India challenged the caste system, Judaism was the religion of the oppressed Palestinian peasantry, and Protestantism emerged as a protest against the orthodox Catholic Church. Weber’s analysis transcends tribal settings and looks at the dynamic role of religion in shaping new ways of thinking and acting within larger, more complex societies.

The Role of Religion: Collective Conscience vs. Economic, Political, and Historical Factors

Durkheim views religion as an expression of the collective conscience, where the act of worshipping a totem, for example, equates to worshipping the clan itself. Ideas and beliefs held collectively by the clan become integral to individual consciousness. The separation between the sacred and the profane is mediated through specific rites, and the participation of the entire clan in these rituals fosters collective enthusiasm and strengthens social bonds. Durkheim sees religion as a mechanism for making individuals aware of the power and eternity of society.

Weber, on the other hand, seeks to understand religion in the context of economic, political, and historical factors. He examines how religion interacts with other societal institutions and how it shapes and is shaped by religious beliefs. Weber is particularly interested in the unique cultural patterns within each society and how religion plays a role in moving societies toward capitalism, industrialization, and rationality. He investigates the influence of religion on individuals’ worldviews and their predisposition towards capitalism and rationalization. His perspective places religion within a broader historical and societal context.

Gods, Spirits, and Prophets: Symbolic vs. Abstract Representations

Durkheim’s view of religion in tribal societies denies that it is concerned with gods and spirits. Instead, he posits that the object of worship is society itself, symbolically represented through totems and rites. According to Durkheim, totems are symbols of the clan, and religious rituals serve to reinforce the collective identity. The sacred and the profane are bridged through these rituals, and participation in them unites clan members, emphasizing the power and continuity of society.

In contrast, Weber embraces the idea of gods and spirits in his analysis of more recent world religions. These religions are characterized by more abstract and personal qualities. When individuals engage in symbolic thought and abstraction, they create gods and spirits as reflections of this activity. Weber also assigns significant importance to prophets in the propagation of religious beliefs. He points to charismatic leaders in religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, such as Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed, who serve as representatives of God or individuals who have directly communicated with the divine. These prophets play a crucial role in shaping religious beliefs and capturing the imagination of the faithful.

Religion and Science: Complementary vs. Competitive Discourses

Durkheim sees both religion and science as providing society with its collective representations. He suggests that the classifications of science are derived from those of religion, emphasizing their complementarity. In his view, there is no inherent conflict or opposition between religion and science.

Weber takes a contrasting perspective, arguing that science and religion are often in tension with each other. His comparative studies of world religions illustrate how religious ethics in India and China historically impeded the growth of capitalism, which relies on an ethic of mastery and rational calculation.Weber views science as an expression of rationality that challenges the traditional and mystical claims of religion. Science, in his view, offers empirical knowledge and verifiable facts that help individuals understand and master the world, thus positioning science and religion in opposition to each other.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the comparative analysis of Durkheim and Weber’s views on religion provides a fascinating exploration of two distinct sociological perspectives. Durkheim’s focus on tribal societies and the role of religion in strengthening social bonds highlights the collective conscience and the symbolic nature of religious expression. Weber’s examination of world religions and their historical roots emphasizes the interplay between religion and economic, political, and historical factors, as well as the abstraction and personal qualities in these religions. The differences in their approaches extend to their views on gods, spirits, and prophets, as well as the relationship between religion and science.

While Durkheim and Weber’s perspectives are shaped by the societies they studied, they shed light on fundamental aspects of the complex relationship between religion and society. These insights continue to inform sociological research and provide valuable lenses through which we can analyze the multifaceted role of religion in our ever-evolving world.