Durkheim -> Sociology as the Scientific Study of Social Facts

Understanding Social Facts

In sociology, the study of social facts is crucial to gaining a deeper understanding of society. Emile Durkheim, a prominent sociologist, emphasizes the importance of approaching social facts as tangible entities that can be observed and studied. Drawing inspiration from the scientific method, Durkheim outlines specific rules for observing social facts and highlights the need for objectivity in sociological research.

Considering Social Facts as Things

Durkheim asserts that social facts should be treated as real and concrete entities, rather than mere concepts or notions. He argues that social facts have often been overlooked or misunderstood, leading to misconceptions and vague impressions. By treating social facts as ‘things’, Durkheim emphasizes the need for empirical study rather than relying solely on intuition or preconceived notions.

Rules for Objective Observation

To ensure objectivity in sociological research, Durkheim outlines three important rules that sociologists must follow when studying social facts.

• Eradicating Preconceptions

The first rule requires sociologists to free themselves from common, everyday ideas that may bias their research. By adopting an emotionally neutral attitude, sociologists can approach their investigations with a fresh perspective and avoid subjective interpretations.

• Precise Conceptualization

Durkheim emphasizes the importance of formulating concepts precisely, especially when researchers have limited knowledge of the phenomenon under study. By focusing on observable properties, sociologists can develop a clearer understanding of social facts. For example, Durkheim examines the type of law dominant in a society to determine the type of solidarity present.

• Separating Social Facts from Individual Manifestations

Sociologists must consider social facts independently from their individual manifestations. By doing so, they can identify common standards that exist within a society. Social facts are often expressed through legal rules, moral regulations, proverbs, and social conventions. By studying these aspects of social life, sociologists can gain valuable insights into the workings of society.

The Role of Statistics in Studying Social Facts

Durkheim acknowledges that social currents, which influence various social phenomena, are not directly observable. However, he argues that statistics can serve as a means of isolating and studying these social currents. For example, birth rates, marriage rates, and suicide rates can provide valuable insights into the underlying social currents that shape these phenomena. By using statistical rates as a tool for verification, sociologists can develop and test propositions related to social facts.

The Case of Suicide Rates

Durkheim uses the example of suicide rates to illustrate how social facts can be studied. Suicide rates represent a social current that varies across different societies and time periods. While these social currents may seem inseparable from individual cases, statistics allow sociologists to isolate and analyze them. By examining suicide rates, sociologists can gain a deeper understanding of the social factors that contribute to variations in suicide rates.

The Distinction between Normal and Pathological Social Facts

In his work on the observation of social facts, Emile Durkheim emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between ‘normal’ and ‘pathological’ social facts. He argues that this distinction is crucial in advancing the scientific study of human beings, as many writers tend to label behaviors different from their own as ‘pathological.’ Durkheim asserts that a social fact is considered normal when it is understood within the context of the society in which it exists. Furthermore, a social fact is deemed ‘normal’ when it serves a utility for a given societal type.

The Normality of Crime

Durkheim uses the example of crime to illustrate the concept of normality. While crime is commonly viewed as pathological and immoral, Durkheim argues that it should not be considered abnormal from a scientific standpoint. He points out that crime is present in the majority of societies, regardless of their type. Moreover, occasional deviations from societal norms are necessary for societal change. These deviations provide opportunities for a society to reaffirm existing norms or reassess and modify them. Durkheim supports his argument by citing the case of Socrates, who was considered a criminal under Athenian law due to his independent thinking. However, Socrates’ ‘crime’ played a crucial role in preparing a new morality and faith that the Athenians needed. It also contributed to the development of freedom of thought enjoyed by people in many countries today.

The Utility of Crime in the Evolution of Morality and Law

Durkheim contends that crime is useful for the normal evolution of morality and law. He draws parallels between the study of medicine and the study of social facts. Just as doctors study both the normal functioning and pathological features of the body to understand its nature, Durkheim applies a similar approach to the study of social facts. In his analysis of the division of labor in society, he explains the normal features in the first two parts of his book and the abnormal features in the third part. Durkheim considers both crime and punishment as normal social facts, as they play essential roles in maintaining social order and shaping societal norms.

The Criteria for Normality

Durkheim establishes criteria for determining the normality of social facts. He argues that when the rate of crime exceeds what is relatively constant for a given social type, it becomes an abnormal or pathological fact. Similarly, suicide, although regarded as ‘wrong’ or ‘immoral’ due to its violation of the value of preserving life, is considered a normal social fact. However, Durkheim becomes concerned when there is a sudden rise in the suicide rate, as observed in western Europe during the nineteenth century. This concern prompts him to study the phenomenon in-depth.

Rules for the Classification of Social Types

In the study of collective life, scholars have held two opposing conceptions. Some argue that each society is unique and cannot be compared, while others believe that all societies belong to the human species and can be understood through the general attributes of human nature. Emile Durkheim, however, takes an intermediary position by introducing the concept of social species or social types. He argues that while there is diversity in social facts, they can still be treated scientifically through comparison, classification, and explanation.

The Importance of Classification

Durkheim emphasizes the importance of classifying societies into types as a crucial step towards explanation. Each type presents its own set of problems and requires specific explanations. Additionally, classification helps determine whether a social fact is normal or abnormal, as its normality or abnormality is relative to a given social type. Durkheim refers to this process as “social morphology,” which involves identifying the common characteristics of several units within a group.

The Constitution of Social Types

To establish social types, Durkheim suggests studying each particular society comprehensively and then comparing them to identify similarities and differences. By doing so, societies can be classified based on their degree of organization. Durkheim proposes using the “perfectly simple society” or the “society of one segment,” such as the “horde,” as a basis for classification. These simple societies combine to form more complex ones, known as “polysegmental societies doubly compounded,” and so on.

The Role of Observation

Durkheim argues that it is not necessary to observe all societies within a social type to determine whether a fact is general throughout that type. A few well-made observations can suffice, just as one well-constructed experiment can establish a scientific law. By observing a representative sample of societies within a social type, researchers can draw conclusions about the general characteristics of that type.

The Usefulness of a Biological Approach

John Rex examines the usefulness of Durkheim’s biological approach to sociological investigations. He identifies cases where this approach can be beneficial, such as in exercises of description, classification, and the formulation of average types. However, difficulties arise when applying a biological approach to the study of societies’ history. Historical factors can complicate the application of biological concepts and require additional considerations.

Explaining Social Facts: The Causal and Functional Approaches

Social facts are phenomena that exist within society and can be studied and analyzed by sociologists. In order to understand these social facts, two approaches can be used – the causal approach and the functional approach. Each approach focuses on different aspects of social phenomena and aims to provide an explanation for their existence.

I. The Causal Approach: Explaining “Why” Social Phenomena Exist

The causal approach is concerned with understanding the reasons behind the existence of a particular social phenomenon. It seeks to identify the causes that give rise to a social fact, separate from the functions it may fulfill. Typically, researchers would first try to establish the causes before specifying the functions. By understanding the causes, insights into the possible functions of a phenomenon can be derived.

For example, let’s consider the social fact of “punishment.” In Durkheim’s work, he explains that crime offends collective sentiments in a society. The function of punishment, in this case, is to maintain these sentiments at the same degree of intensity. If offenses against collective sentiments were not punished, the strength of the sentiments necessary for social unity would not be preserved. This example illustrates how the causal approach helps explain the existence of punishment as a social fact.

II. The Functional Approach: Establishing Correspondence with Social Needs

The functional approach focuses on establishing the correspondence between a social fact and the general needs of the social organism. It aims to determine how a particular social fact fulfills a specific function within society. While cause and function have separate characteristics, there can be a reciprocal relation between the two, and the analysis can start from either perspective.

Durkheim’s study of the division of labor provides an example of starting with functions and then moving on to causes. In Part I of his work, he examines the functions of the division of labor, while in Part II, he delves into the causes. This approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of the social phenomenon under investigation.

III. The Method of Explanation: The Social Character of Social Facts

Having distinguished between the causal and functional approaches, Durkheim emphasizes the importance of using a method that aligns with the social character of social facts. Sociology, as a discipline, focuses on the collective nature of society and its distinct characteristics. It draws a clear line between individual and society, considering society as a separate reality from the individuals within it.

Therefore, any attempt to explain social facts solely based on individual characteristics or psychology would result in a false explanation. In the case of causal explanation, the determining cause of a social fact should be sought among the social facts that precede it, rather than within the states of individual consciousness. Similarly, in functional explanation, the function of a social fact should always be sought in its relation to some social end.

Influence on Sociology: Durkheim’s Conception of Function

Durkheim’s conception of function has had a significant impact on the field of sociology, particularly during the 1940s and 50s in the United States. Functionalism, a dominant theoretical perspective during that time, owes much to Durkheim’s understanding of function. This point will be further explored in the last two blocks of the course, highlighting the lasting influence of Durkheim’s ideas on the study of social phenomena.