Model Answer:

Chronic poverty, characterized by persistent long-term deprivation across generations, requires multidimensional analysis beyond income metrics. The capability deprivation and social capital deprivation approaches offer complementary yet distinct frameworks for understanding its underlying mechanisms.

Capability Deprivation Approach

Amartya Sen’s capability approach defines poverty as deprivation of fundamental “capabilities” rather than merely low income.

• Core concept: Capabilities represent real freedoms and opportunities to achieve valuable “functionings” (beings and doings like being well-nourished, educated, or participating in community life)
• Chronic poverty mechanism: Severe capability failure creates intergenerational traps—lack of education or healthcare restricts employment opportunities, perpetuating deprivation
• Beyond income: Even with adequate resources, factors like discrimination or disability can restrict capabilities, highlighting structural barriers

Social Capital Deprivation Approach

Associated with Putnam and Bourdieu, this perspective views poverty as resulting from social exclusion and lack of valuable networks.

• Core concept: Social capital comprises resources embedded in networks—trust, reciprocity, and connections that provide opportunities
• Chronic poverty mechanism: Network exclusion means isolation from crucial information (job opportunities), informal credit, and crisis support systems
• Example: Migrant families without community ties struggle to access employment and support, perpetuating marginalization

Comparative Analysis

Key Differences:
• Unit of analysis: Capability approach is individual-centric, focusing on personal agency and substantive freedoms; social capital approach is relational, emphasizing resources from social position
• Causal mechanism: Sen attributes poverty to failure in converting resources into functionings; social capital theorists emphasize exclusion from resource-providing networks

Complementarity:
The approaches are interconnected—strong social capital enhances individual capabilities (community networks facilitate education access), while capability deprivation (illiteracy) barriers social capital formation.

Policy Implications:
Effective interventions must address both dimensions: enhancing individual capabilities (education, health services) while strengthening collective social fabric (community organizations, networking opportunities). The capability approach illuminates what individuals are unfree to achieve, while social capital theory explains how social environment sustains these deprivations.

Model Answer:

Reliability in Social Science Research

Reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of measurement instruments in social research. It addresses whether a research tool produces stable results when applied repeatedly under identical conditions.

Meaning of Reliability

A reliable measure yields consistent results across time and researchers. For instance, a questionnaire measuring social alienation should give similar scores to the same individual over a short period, assuming their alienation level remains unchanged. Assessment methods include:
– Test-retest reliability (consistency over time)
– Inter-rater reliability (consistency across researchers)
– Internal consistency (coherence among scale items)

Importance in Social Science Research

1. Scientific Rigour
Following Durkheim’s tradition, reliability establishes sociology’s scientific credibility by enabling objective measurement of social facts and patterns.

2. Prerequisite for Validity
While distinct from validity, reliability is its necessary precondition. An unreliable instrument cannot be valid—like a scale giving different readings each time cannot accurately measure weight.

3. Replicability and Generalization
Reliable instruments enable:
– Study replication for verification
– Generalization from samples to populations
– Cumulative knowledge building

4. Policy-Making
Unreliable data on unemployment or poverty leads to flawed policies and resource misallocation. Consistent measurements ensure effective social interventions.

Conclusion:
Reliability is fundamental for generating trustworthy sociological knowledge. It bridges the gap between theoretical understanding and practical application, ensuring research findings can confidently inform both theory-building and real-world problem-solving.

Model Answer:

Historical Materialism: Marx’s Framework for Understanding Society

Historical materialism, the cornerstone of Marx’s sociological thought, presents a theory where material and economic conditions serve as the primary drivers of social change, explaining societal evolution through class struggle originating from the mode of production.

Main Features of Historical Materialism

Base-Superstructure Model:
Marx posited that the economic base forms society’s foundation, comprising the forces of production (technology, labor, raw materials) and relations of production (class relations, property ownership). This base determines the superstructure – political, legal, cultural, and ideological institutions. As Marx stated, “It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness.”

Primacy of Class Struggle:
“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles,” Marx declared. Each mode of production creates antagonistic classes (masters-slaves, lords-serfs, bourgeoisie-proletariat), with this conflict driving historical change.

Dialectical Process:
History progresses dialectically – a prevailing mode of production (thesis) contains internal contradictions, generating an opposing class (antithesis). The resulting struggle leads to revolutionary transformation (synthesis). Thus, feudalism’s contradictions birthed the bourgeoisie, establishing capitalism.

Contemporary Relevance

Continuing Applicability:
– Economic Inequality: Oxfam reports on wealth concentration validate Marx’s analysis of class divisions between capital owners and workers
– Power Structures: The superstructure concept explains how economic power translates into political influence through corporate lobbying and media ownership
– Worker Alienation: From factory assembly lines to gig economy precarity, modern workers experience commodification and disconnection from their labor’s products

Limitations:
– Economic Determinism: Weber demonstrated that cultural values (Protestant ethic) significantly influenced capitalism’s rise, challenging Marx’s economic primacy
– Complex Class Structures: Contemporary identity politics based on gender, race, and ethnicity often intersect with or supersede class as mobilization bases
– Capitalism’s Adaptability: Welfare states and regulatory frameworks have mitigated some predicted contradictions

Historical materialism remains an indispensable critical tool for analyzing economic inequalities and power dynamics, though it requires modification to address contemporary complexities.

Model Answer:

Positivism, pioneered by Auguste Comte, asserts that sociology should adopt natural science methods to study social phenomena objectively through empirical observation and measurement. It seeks to identify causal laws governing social reality and establish universal, value-free knowledge for social progress.

Major Arguments Against Positivism

Multiple sociological perspectives have critiqued positivism’s fundamental assumptions:

1. Neglect of Subjective Meanings
Weber’s interpretivist approach argues that humans attach subjective meanings to actions. His concept of Verstehen emphasizes understanding internal motivations that quantitative methods cannot capture—understanding voting requires grasping voters’ beliefs, not just counting votes.

2. Myth of Value-Neutrality
Gouldner contends complete objectivity is impossible. Researchers’ values, backgrounds, and political leanings influence topic selection, methodology, and interpretation. Research on poverty inevitably reflects whether researchers emphasize individual failings or structural inequalities.

3. Ignoring Unobservable Structures
Critical realists argue that deep structures (capitalism, patriarchy) shape social outcomes but aren’t directly observable. Marxism explains inequality through class conflict—concepts positivism cannot easily operationalize.

4. Problem of Reactivity
Unlike natural objects, humans alter behavior when studied (Hawthorne effect), undermining reliability and preventing law-like generalizations.

5. Reductionism
Phenomenologists like Schutz argue positivism reduces complex human experiences to variables, losing the essence of inter-subjectively constructed social reality.

6. Neglect of Human Agency
Ethnomethodologists (Garfinkel) critique positivism’s deterministic view, emphasizing how individuals actively create and negotiate social reality through everyday interactions.

7. Impossibility of Prediction
Unlike natural sciences, sociology cannot predict human behavior due to reflexivity—people can learn about social theories and change their behavior accordingly.

8. Cultural Specificity
Post-colonial theorists argue positivism’s universal laws reflect Western ethnocentrism, ignoring cultural diversity in social organization and meaning-making.

Conclusion:

While positivism established sociology’s scientific credentials, these critiques reveal fundamental limitations in applying natural science methods to human societies. Contemporary sociology increasingly recognizes the need for methodological pluralism to capture social complexity.

Model Answer:

Classical social stratification theories are critiqued for being gender-blind, prioritizing class while overlooking gender as an independent dimension of inequality.

Classical Theories’ Gender Neglect

Traditional approaches systematically ignored gender:
– Marx analyzed class through relationship to production means, treating women’s position as derivative of their husband’s or father’s class, rendering female experiences invisible
– Weber’s multidimensional approach (class, status, party) used male-headed households as analytical units, ignoring women’s independent status
– Parsons naturalized gender inequality through “expressive” (female) versus “instrumental” (male) role division, treating it as functional rather than stratifying

Feminist Reconceptualization

Feminist scholars established gender as a core stratifying principle:
– Sylvia Walby conceptualized patriarchy as a distinct system with structures (paid work, state, household) that systematically subordinate women across class lines
– Public/Private Divide: Feminists exposed how theories focused on public sphere while ignoring private sphere exploitation through unpaid domestic labor—the “second shift”
– Joan Acker demonstrated organizations are inherently gendered, creating systemic disadvantages like glass ceilings and gender pay gaps

Conclusion:
While classical theories provide foundational insights, they remain fundamentally gender-blind. Feminist scholarship has been crucial in establishing gender as a pervasive, independent system of stratification rather than secondary to class.

Model Answer:

Merton’s Reference Group Theory and Digital Identity Formation

Robert K. Merton’s reference group theory provides a robust framework for understanding identity construction in digital spaces, where individuals navigate multiple online groups to shape self-concept and behavior, transcending geographical boundaries.

Merton’s dual functions manifest clearly in digital contexts:

Normative Function:
– Online communities (subreddits, influencer followings) establish behavioral standards
– Fitness influencers shape followers’ identity around wellness through adopted routines and dietary habits
– Digital subcultures provide value systems for identity formation

Comparative Function:
– Social media enables constant self-evaluation against curated content
– Users measure success, appearance, and lifestyle against idealized presentations
– Digital comparison directly impacts self-worth and identity construction

Amplified Sociological Processes

Anticipatory Socialization:
– Aspiring professionals mirror LinkedIn profiles of industry leaders
– Individuals adopt language, aesthetics of desired online groups
– Digital personas enable identity experimentation before actual group membership

Relative Deprivation:
– Exposure to idealized digital lifestyles intensifies feelings of inadequacy
– Constant comparison through algorithmic feeds affects mental well-being
– Virtual reference groups create new forms of status anxiety

Though pre-digital in origin, Merton’s theory effectively explains mechanisms of comparison, aspiration, and validation central to fragmented identity construction online. It illuminates how digital natives craft fluid, multi-platform identities through selective group identification.

Model Answer:

Variables in Social Research: Definition and Types

A variable in social research is a logical grouping of attributes or a concept whose value changes from case to case. It represents measurable characteristics central to positivist methodology, enabling researchers to formulate hypotheses and test causal relationships between social phenomena. The process of defining concepts in measurable terms is called operationalization.

Types Based on Causal Relationship

– Independent Variable (IV): The presumed cause manipulated or observed to determine effects. Example: education level in studying income patterns.
– Dependent Variable (DV): The presumed effect that changes in response to IV. Example: income level influenced by education.
– Intervening Variable: Mediates between IV and DV. Occupational prestige may intervene between education and income.
– Extraneous Variable: External factors researchers control to ensure validity. Family background could influence both education and income relationships.

Types Based on Measurement

– Categorical Variables: Distinct non-numerical categories
– Nominal: No inherent order (gender, religion)
– Ordinal: Ranked categories (social class: lower, middle, upper)
– Continuous Variables: Numerical values measured along a continuum (age, income, years of schooling)

The careful identification and operationalization of variables are fundamental to rigorous sociological inquiry. Durkheim’s suicide study exemplified this by operationalizing social integration as a measurable variable, establishing sociology’s scientific credentials.

Model Answer:

Relationship Between Sociology and History

Sociology and history are deeply intertwined disciplines studying human social life. As G.E. Howard noted, “History is past Sociology, and Sociology is present History,” highlighting their complementary nature.

Similarities and Interdependence

Area of Study:
• Both examine human society, social institutions, and transformations
• Study social processes like revolutions, modernization, and social movements
• C. Wright Mills’ “Sociological Imagination” explicitly links personal biographies with historical context

Methodological Overlap:
• Both use comparative analysis and documentary research
• History provides empirical data for sociological analysis (e.g., studying caste system requires historical texts)
• Sociology offers theoretical frameworks for historical interpretation (e.g., Weber’s concepts of authority to analyze Mughal empire)

Key Differences

Focus and Approach:
• History: Idiographic – describes unique, particular events (specific causes of French Revolution)
• Sociology: Nomothetic – establishes general laws and patterns (general causes of revolutions)

Methodology:
• History: Primarily analyzes primary sources, archives, manuscripts for chronological reconstruction
• Sociology: Employs surveys, interviews, participant observation, statistical analysis for contemporary study

Time Orientation:
• History: Past-oriented, concerned with chronological narration
• Sociology: Present-oriented, studying contemporary structures while using historical context for deeper understanding

This interdependence makes both disciplines essential for comprehensive social understanding.

Model Answer:

Common Sense and Its Relationship with Sociology

Common sense refers to routine, taken-for-granted knowledge and beliefs people use to navigate daily life. It represents practical wisdom derived from everyday experiences, accepted uncritically as self-evident truth within particular societies.

Nature of Common Sense

Common sense knowledge is characterized by its unsystematic and localized nature. It often contains contradictions—for instance, ‘birds of a feather flock together’ versus ‘opposites attract.’ This everyday knowledge is culturally specific, varying across societies, and relies on immediate personal observations rather than critical examination.

Sociology’s Dialectical Relationship with Common Knowledge

• Point of Departure: Sociology begins with common-sense observations but subjects them to rigorous empirical testing and theoretical scrutiny rather than accepting them at face value

• Scientific Approach: Unlike the unreflective nature of common sense, sociology employs systematic research methods. Emile Durkheim’s study on suicide exemplified this by challenging the common-sense view of suicide as purely individualistic, revealing its connection to social integration and regulation

• Sociological Imagination: C. Wright Mills emphasized connecting personal troubles to public issues—linking individual unemployment to economic recession—a perspective absent in common-sense reasoning

• Debunking Role: Peter Berger noted sociology’s function in revealing hidden social forces behind “obvious” truths

Sociology thus maintains a critical relationship with common sense, using it as a starting point while transcending its limitations through systematic, evidence-based analysis of social phenomena.